X-ray calibration of Kodak Direct Exposure film

P. D. Rockett; C. R. Bird; C. J. Hailey; D. Sullivan; D. B. Brown; P. G. Burkhalter

doi:10.1364/AO.24.002536

Applied Optics
Vol. 24,
Issue 16,
pp. 2536-2542
(1985)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.24.002536

X-ray calibration of Kodak Direct Exposure film

P. D. Rockett, C. R. Bird, C. J. Hailey, D. Sullivan, D. B. Brown, and P. G. Burkhalter

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P. D. Rockett, C. R. Bird, C. J. Hailey, D. Sullivan, D. B. Brown, and P. G. Burkhalter, "X-ray calibration of Kodak Direct Exposure film," Appl. Opt. 24, 2536-2542 (1985)

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Abstract

Kodak Direct Exposure film (DEF) has replaced Kodak No-Screen film for use in x-ray diffraction analysis and in autoradiography. DEF is a double-emulsion film which has been found to have improved radiographic characteristics over No-Screen. A set of H-D curves has been generated for DEF at five photon energies: 0.930, 1.49, 1.74, 4.51/4.93, and 6.93 keV. The KMSF x-ray calibration facility was utilized to study the absolute sensitivity of this film over its full dynamic range. Physical examination of the film was followed by theoretical modeling, which adequately reproduced the measured curves.

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Exposure (photons/cm²)	Diffuse density above fog	Total diffuse fog	Accel. voltage (kV)	X-ray beam filter	Exposure (photons/cm²)	Diffuse density above fog	Total diffuse fog	Accel. voltage (kV)	X-ray beam filter
Cu L = 0.930 keV			1.6	460-nm Cu	Si Kα = 1.74 keV			3.0	4-μm Si
				1.4-μm C₈H₁₀					6.2-μm mylar
2.20 ×10⁷	0.07	0.21			1.97 × 10⁶	0.02	0.16
4.41 × 10⁷	0.14	0.21			3.94 × 10⁶	0.05	0.16
8.83 ×10⁷	0.25	0.21			7.89 × 10⁶	0.10	0.16
1.76 ×10⁸	0.45	0.21			1.58 × 10⁷	0.18	0.16
3.53 ×10⁸	0.75	0.21			3.15 × 10⁷	0.33	0.16
3.53 × 10⁸	0.76	0.21			6.31 × 10⁷	0.61	0.16
7.06 × 10⁸	1.14	0.21			1.26 ×10⁸	1.10	0.16
7.06 × 10⁸	1.39	0.21			2.52 ×10⁸	1.82	0.16
1.42 × 10⁹	1.95	0.21			5.05 ×10⁸	2.68	0.16
2.82 ×10⁹	2.53	0.21
Al Kα = 1.49 keV			3.0	6-μm Al	Ti Kα/β = 4.51/4.93 keV			12.0	25-μm Ti
				25-μm Be
1.98 × 10⁶	0.02	0.15			3.06 × 10⁶	0.06	0.14
3.97 × 10⁶	0.04	0.15			6.12 × 10⁶	0.11	0.14
7.93 × 10⁶	0.08	0.15			1.22 × 10⁷	0.30	0.14
1.59 × 10⁷	0.15	0.15			2.45 × 10⁷	0.65	0.14
3.17 × 10⁷	0.29	0.15			4.90 × 10⁷	1.45	0.14
6.35 × 10⁷	0.55	0.15			9.79 × 10⁷	2.72	0.14
1.27 × 10⁸	1.08	0.15			1.96 × 10⁸	4.57	0.14
2.54 × 10⁸	1.84	0.15
5.08 × 10⁸	2.79	0.15
					Co Kα = 6.93 keV			14.0	25-μm Fe
					4.06 × 10⁶	0.06	0.24
					8.13 × 10⁶	0.12	0.24
					1.63 × 10⁷	0.32	0.24
					3.25 × 10⁷	0.71	0.24
					6.51 × 10⁷	1.51	0.24
					1.30 × 10⁸	2.84	0.24

Film	Emulsion layer thickness (μm)	Supercoat thicknes (μm)	Average grain size (μm)	Average grain volume fraction
101	Monolayer of grains	0	0.7–1.0	1.0
No-Screen	25	2.2	0.8–1.8	0.2
SB-5	10	0.5–2.1	0.8–2.4	0.2
SB-392	8	1.1	1–2.7	0.2
DEF	13	0.4–1.8	1.3	0.4
2497	3.8	1.5	0.5–0.83	—

Parameter	Value	Source
Thickness, one emulsion	0.0013 cm	Micrometer and SEM
Thickness, supercoat	0.00013 cm	SEM
Thickness, base	0.01776 cm	Micrometer
X-ray absorption coefficients	Ref. 9
Formula, gelatin	C₈H₁₆O₅N₂	Ref. 4
Formula, film base	C₅H₄O₂	Ref. 4
Density, gelatin	l.4 g/cm³
Density, film base	l.4 g/cm³
V (volume fraction of AgBr)	0.4	X-ray transmission
S (effective grain projected area)	3.04 × 10⁻⁸ cm²	SEM and data fit
t (effective grain thickness)	0.00016 cm	SEM and data fit
M_g (grain size growth on development)	2.0	Ref. 5 and data fit
M_s/M_t (M_s is a correction for nonrandom grain distribution; M_t is a correction for emulsion swelling during development)	1.0	Ref. 5 and data fit
s/u (ratio of light scattering to light absorption in densitometry)		Data fit with three densitometers

Exposure (photons/cm²)	Diffuse density above fog	Total diffuse fog	Accel. voltage (kV)	X-ray beam filter	Exposure (photons/cm²)	Diffuse density above fog	Total diffuse fog	Accel. voltage (kV)	X-ray beam filter
Cu L = 0.930 keV			1.6	460-nm Cu	Si Kα = 1.74 keV			3.0	4-μm Si
				1.4-μm C₈H₁₀					6.2-μm mylar
2.20 ×10⁷	0.07	0.21			1.97 × 10⁶	0.02	0.16
4.41 × 10⁷	0.14	0.21			3.94 × 10⁶	0.05	0.16
8.83 ×10⁷	0.25	0.21			7.89 × 10⁶	0.10	0.16
1.76 ×10⁸	0.45	0.21			1.58 × 10⁷	0.18	0.16
3.53 ×10⁸	0.75	0.21			3.15 × 10⁷	0.33	0.16
3.53 × 10⁸	0.76	0.21			6.31 × 10⁷	0.61	0.16
7.06 × 10⁸	1.14	0.21			1.26 ×10⁸	1.10	0.16
7.06 × 10⁸	1.39	0.21			2.52 ×10⁸	1.82	0.16
1.42 × 10⁹	1.95	0.21			5.05 ×10⁸	2.68	0.16
2.82 ×10⁹	2.53	0.21
Al Kα = 1.49 keV			3.0	6-μm Al	Ti Kα/β = 4.51/4.93 keV			12.0	25-μm Ti
				25-μm Be
1.98 × 10⁶	0.02	0.15			3.06 × 10⁶	0.06	0.14
3.97 × 10⁶	0.04	0.15			6.12 × 10⁶	0.11	0.14
7.93 × 10⁶	0.08	0.15			1.22 × 10⁷	0.30	0.14
1.59 × 10⁷	0.15	0.15			2.45 × 10⁷	0.65	0.14
3.17 × 10⁷	0.29	0.15			4.90 × 10⁷	1.45	0.14
6.35 × 10⁷	0.55	0.15			9.79 × 10⁷	2.72	0.14
1.27 × 10⁸	1.08	0.15			1.96 × 10⁸	4.57	0.14
2.54 × 10⁸	1.84	0.15
5.08 × 10⁸	2.79	0.15
					Co Kα = 6.93 keV			14.0	25-μm Fe
					4.06 × 10⁶	0.06	0.24
					8.13 × 10⁶	0.12	0.24
					1.63 × 10⁷	0.32	0.24
					3.25 × 10⁷	0.71	0.24
					6.51 × 10⁷	1.51	0.24
					1.30 × 10⁸	2.84	0.24

Film	Emulsion layer thickness (μm)	Supercoat thicknes (μm)	Average grain size (μm)	Average grain volume fraction
101	Monolayer of grains	0	0.7–1.0	1.0
No-Screen	25	2.2	0.8–1.8	0.2
SB-5	10	0.5–2.1	0.8–2.4	0.2
SB-392	8	1.1	1–2.7	0.2
DEF	13	0.4–1.8	1.3	0.4
2497	3.8	1.5	0.5–0.83	—

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Applied Optics